Fallacy
I. Definition of Fallacy
What is a fallacy?
In his book a fallacy as “a kind of argument that seems to be correct or valid, but is not so if examined carefully.” It is an erroneous or false reasoning. It is an illogical, deceptive and misleading argument.
One must be critical with respect to arguments because if the argument is fallacious, one may be misled into accepting a false belief. The study of fallacies is important because if a person understands the logical requirements of arguments, she will be properly guided. The ability to detect errors in reasoning can be very helpful in any form of communicative discourse. It is important to note that not all-convincing arguments are logical arguments.
II. Kinds of Fallacies
A. Informal Fallacy
An informal fallacy is “an error that arises from the confusion or ambiguity in the denotation of the terms used, from a wrong assumption of facts and from evading the issue at hand,” This kind of fallacy is not concerned with the formal structure of the argument. It focuses more on the material content or meaning suggested by the argument.
B. Formal Fallacy
A formal fallacy is an error that arises from the violation of any formal rule of Logic. This kind of fallacy is not concerned with the material content or meaning suggested by the argument. It focuses more on the formal structure of the argument. A formal fallacy arises as a result of violating a specific rule of logic.
III. Classification of Informal Fallacies
A. Fallacies of Relevance
These fallacies rely on premises that are not relevant to the conclusion. There are numerous fallacies of relevance. This lesson will present twelve of the most common fallacies of this kind.
1. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam
This fallacy is committed when one claims that a certain proposition or conclusion is true because it has not been proven false, or that it is false because it has not been proven true. This kind of reasoning is illogical because the absence of proof does not automatically render a conclusion true or false. It can be the case that no actual proof is available at the present moment only.
Examples:
- Without a doubt, I can tell that you cheated during the examination because you cannot disprove it.
- God, the Supreme Being, does exist because, up to now, nobody has convincingly shown that he does not.
2. Argumentum Ad Verecundiam
This fallacy “arises when the appeal is made to parties having no legitimate claim to authority in the matter at hand.” It is unreliable to make a conclusion based on the endorsement of someone who does not qualify as a legitimate authority on a certain subject.
Examples:
- My new bath soap is really the most effective means to control pimples because all those pretty movie stars are using it.
- An economic crisis is inevitable and it is impossible for the country to recover because the fortune teller predicted it.
3. Complex Question
This fallacy involves “asking question in such a way as to presuppose the truth of some conclusion buried in that question.”
Examples:
- Have you finally given up drug abuse?
- Has your AIDS gotten worse?
4. Argumentum Ad Hominem
This fallacy is committed “whenever the thrust of the accusation is directed, not at a conclusion, but at the person who asserts or defends it.” Instead of discussing the issue at hand, one focuses on the character of the person. This is the case when one tries to discredit a person instead of disproving his argument.
Examples:
- Mr. A: “You are very extravagant!”
Mr. B: “How about you? You have been very extravagant yourself!”
- Teacher: “Why are you always late for class?”
Student: “Why? Haven’t you ever been late, sir?”
5. Accident
The fallacy of accident is committed “when one applies a generalization to individual cases that it does not properly govern.” This is illogical because what is generally applicable is not necessarily applicable to all. The fallacy of accident involves a hasty conclusion derived from a generalization. As a generalization, it may admit certain exceptions.
Examples:
- Pregnant woman take this medicine to increase their stamina; so, we should all take it to increase our stamina (although we are not pregnant.)
- Opium is a prohibited drug so doctors should not prescribe it to relieve a patient’s pain.
6. Converse Accident
The fallacy of converse accident “applies a principle that is true of a particular case to the great run of cases.” The person who is guilty of committing this fallacy incorrectly argues that “if I have seen one, I have seen them all.” It is illogical to conclude with a hasty generalization.
Example:
- Her wealthy team mate is a computer science student; so every computer science student is wealthy.
- My suitor is a big liar; hence, all men are liars.
7. False Cause
This fallacy involves “reasoning the lies on treating as the cause of a thing something that is not really its cause.” It arbitrarily and erroneously attributes a cause that has no reasonable connection to a certain effect.
Examples:
- In the few years, all suma cum laude in college have worn eyeglasses. Therefore, if I am to be a suma cum laude in college, I should start wearing eyeglasses.
- Their marriage failed because their wedding rings are studded with diamonds.
8. Begging the Question
This fallacy “assumes the truth of what one seeks to prove, in an effort to prove it. It assumes that what is to be proven is already true.” In effect, what comes out is some sort of a circular argument. It may be valid but always worthless, too. We cannot utilize the topic, issue or conclusion that we are trying to prove as part of the argument that is supposed to justify it.
Examples:
- Why were you absent? Because I was not present.
- Since no abortionist is a moral person, all abortionists are immoral.
9. Argumentum Ad Populum
This fallacy is committed “using expressive language and other devices calculated to excite enthusiasm, excitement, anger or hate instead of presenting evidence and rational argument.” One merely appeals to the popular will and ignores the need for evidence.
Examples:
- Tough mamas use this rubbing alcohol.
- You must buy this greeting card if you care to send the very best.
10. Argumentum Ad Misericordiam
This fallacy “appeals to the audience’s sense of altruism and mercy instead of presenting evidence or a rational argument.”
Examples:
- A student begs her professor to give her a passing mark because if she failed, she would lose her scholarship. Likewise, this is her last term in school.
- A youth was tried for a brutal crime: the murderer of his parents using an axe. He pleaded for leniency on the ground that he was an orphan.
11. Argumentum Ad Baculum
This fallacy is committed “when the appeal to force (like one use a coercive or threatening methods) causes the acceptance of a conclusion.” The argument is thereby accepted, not because it is logical, but because non-acceptance would mean harm or danger.
Examples:
- You had better agree that the new company policy is the best if you expect to keep your job.
- Do as you are told or face the consequences.
12.Ignoratio Elenchi
This fallacy is committed when an argument purporting to establish a particular conclusion is instead directed to proving a different conclusion. The premises “miss the point”
Examples:
- Donna is beautiful. She has long soft hair. She dances well. Therefore…she should be the best actress.
- Donna, the billionaire, owns the biggest buildings in the city, So, she must be elected mayor.
B. Fallacies of Ambiguity
These fallacies contain ambiguous words or phrases, whose meanings shift or change within the course of the argument. This lesson will present three fallacies of this kind.
1. Equivocation
This fallacy involves using equivocal terms in an argument. The argument becomes illogical as a result of confusing the meanings of a word or phrases, accidentally or deliberately.
Example:
- Cherry is a fruit; my friend is Cherry; so, she is a fruit!
2. Composition
This fallacy is committed when one takes collectively what should be taken individually. This is illogical because the attributes of a part are taken as attributes of the whole.
Example:
- One person can carry a wheel. That wheel is a part of my car. Therefore one person can carry my car.
3. Division
This fallacy is committed when one takes individually what should be taken collectively. This is illogical because the attributes of a whole are taken as attributes of the part.
Example:
- This company is a popular corporation. Thus, the vice-president of this company is a popular person.
Please Print your notes. I "might" allow you to open your notes during our test.
"dubito ergo cogito, cogito ergo sum."
(I doubt therefore I think, I think therefore I am)
René Descartes (1596-1650)
